in the same fashion as imposed by Phinehas (Num. 25:7f; A.Z. 36b). If the parties involved went further and actually married, they were subject to whipping(A.Z. 36b; Kid. 68b;Yad, Isurei Bi-a 12.1).
Not all the Talmudic authorities and not all periods were as restrictive as those previously cited, and the exchange of food, as well as social intercourse, with non-Jews was allowed, but the basic wall of separation remained(A.Z.57a, 58b, and 59a).
The most significant change made during this period was the declaration of invalidity of mixed marriages. This remained a dictum of Rabbinic literature(M. Kid. 6b, 68b). This Talmudic tractate provides a long list of marriages which are null and void for a variety of reasons, as well as marriages which are valid but interdictive. Marriages which involve Gentiles are declared void as no Kiddushin is possible. This new view may have reflected an internal Jewish development, or it may have been influenced by Roman law.”
The Biblical laws against intermarriage were reinterpreted sometimes more strictly, and on other occasions leniently. The Schools of Hillel and Shammai expanded the list of nations excluded from intermarriage beyond the seven peoples of Canaan , to include all pagans. Simeon ben Yochai agreed with this interpretation(A.Z. 36b). A very strict view was taken by Rava, who felt that the prohibition against the seven nations continued after their conversion. This was one of the many attempts to maintain absolute family purity. It meant that intercourse or marriage with pagans was seen as prohibited from a biological or racial point of view; it was zenut, and would be punished through whipping(Yev. 76a; Yad, Isurei Bi-a 12.1). Part of the strong feeling against mixed marriages was reflected in a general emphasis on family purity. It existed from the time of Ezra and Nehemiah to the destruction of the Temple. The loss of records at that time and in the later revolt of Bar Kochba made such genealogical practices difficult. The long genealogical lists in Chronicles reflected the mood, as did the