know Hebrew or knew it poorly. For an original work, it may have certified its orthodoxy which was critical for the rabbinic authorities of that period who were concerned about the spread of the Shabbatians and later other groups which they considered wrong.
These copyrights were initially limited to ten years, sometimes only five. By the middle of the sixteenth century, some rabbis of Italian cities extended the period to twenty-five years and issued a herem against the purchase of illegally printed similar books. Efforts in this direction can be traced through prohibitions in various responsa collections which set the limits of copyright to fifteen or twenty years." However, some books appeared without a haskamah. In Ferrara an ordinance stipulated that three rabbis had to approve any new book published in that city(1554) By the end of the sixteenth century a few rabbinic authorities took an additional step to protect authors by declaring that publication should not occur without the permission of the author(1597 Venice)."! All these were efforts to establish a new pattern and each rabbinic authority took the path which seemed appropriate for the local conditions
The most widely known copyright controversy provides insights into its limits and possibilities during the last years of Jewish selfgovernment. The controversy arose over the publication of Wolf Heidenheim ’s(1757-1832) edition of the prayer book. Heidenheim , a well known scholar and Hebrew grammarian, had previously published a critical edition of the Pentateuch (1797). His edition of the prayer book followed a careful study of dozens of manuscripts and the discovery of numerous errors. His prayerbook for the festivals appeared in 1800 and was followed by a daily prayer book(1806). Both appeared in beautiful typography, with a German translation in Hebrew letters and a commentary. Heidenheim ’s friend , Wolf Breidenbach , enabled him to establish a publishing firm in Roedelheim and the books quickly became popular. However,