If we return to northern Europe in the fifteenth century, we shall see that in some instances rabbis predominated, in other situations parnasim prevailed." But in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries this changed because a professional rabbinate had developed there. The reason for the change was the separation of powers that developed between the parnasim and the rabbis. The parnasim dealt with taxation and relations with the secular government while the rabbis dealt with purely religious matters as well as internal conflicts between members of the Jewish community. As the parnasim usually came from the wealthiest members of the community, they ruled without much concern for the rabbis or anyone else who got in their way. However, in the seventeenth century we find Jewish knowledge among the laity of Central Europe diminishing; this increased the power of the rabbis who were also recognized by the Christian rulers. The rabbis, however, did not wish to have too much contact with the secular powers and in some matters shared authority with lay courts.'® Occasionally there was some democracy. Nevertheless perpetuation of power from one generation to the next was frequent.
Some of the detailed statutes reveal the division of power among various groups. The appointment of communal officials and the distribution of charity were the most disturbing areas of conflict.” There were other problems; for example, when the king or a secular ruler appointed the rabbi with the authority to preside over the uppermost level of the court system.
In sixteenth century Poland , the autonomy of the Jewish community was confirmed by the monarch as demonstrated by the great charter of 1551. This document indicates some power sharing as it mentions“rabbi, judge or other Jewish elders.” In this community, rabbi and laity shared power and each had a basis for a claim to authority. The rabbi claimed authority from the
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